European Union

ECSC, EEC, EC and the EU as new and unique forms of cooperation: The most important aspects here include - institutional structure, own legal system and Court of Justice, the possibility to assign authoritative values, the permanent presence of constitutional politics and continually changing rules - especially during the period of time between the adoption of the Single European Act and the summit meeting in Laeken, in which one intergovernmental conference closely followed the next.

From cooperation with sectorial limitations to comprehensive cooperation: Only one sector had been communitized as part of the ECSC - coal and steel. In reality the EEC also encompassed very few communitized areas at the outset such as customs union, common market, foreign trade and agricultural policy. The Single European Act ushered in huge expansion of the Community's common areas of activity (environment, research and technology policy etc.) Since the Treaty on European Union came into force nearly all fields of politics are now a part of cooperation in some form or another.

From intergovernmental to supranational cooperation: One of the most significant aspects in this regard is surely the transition from unanimous to qualified majority voting. The European Parliament has evolved from an assembly existing only in an advisory capacity to an institution with almost equal influence (co-decision procedure).

The implementation of measures with time: If certain ideas and concepts proved impossible to implement initially, numerous examples demonstrate the likelihood of them becoming part of EU policy with time. This was true for the internal market, which was first tabled in 1958 but did not become reality until 1992, and also for monetary union, which had been on the agenda in Brussels since the 60s. The question is, of course: why?

The co-existence of supranational and intergovernmental elements are very conspicuous and, without any doubt, in need of explanation: Just think about the Luxembourg Compromise, which strengthened the role played by member states and intergovernmental elements and compare it with the way in which the treaties were constitutionalized at the same time by the ECJ, which led to supranationalization. Or consider the three pillars making up the Treaty on European Union which could provide a vivid example of the coexistence between supranational and intergovernmental elements.

Another unusual aspect, which is also very much in need of explanation, is the huge development momentum that has built up in the second and third pillars since the Treaty of Amsterdam. The very fact that this kind of expansion in cooperation could be achieved during the past few years is just as remarkable as the fact that this expansion took place outside of the intergovernmental conferences, which, quite rightly, are held as being of central importance.

From 6 to 15 to 27(?): Expansion in the number of members. Two big and far reaching questions are also linked to this aspect of the EU. Firstly, how did the situation come about that - after the completion of the current process of enlargement - the number of members will have increased fivefold (!) and, secondly, what will be the consequence of this enlargement in terms of the Union's character?

There can be no doubt that external influences have always played their part. One example is the great impact of changes taking place in Europe following the end of the Cold War. These changes created and are still creating new and clearly recognizable challenges for cooperation in Europe especially in terms of foreign policy, but also in the area Justice and Home Affairs

It has also become clear that the mid-to-long-term effects of cooperation - such as a shift in positions and philosophies concerning economic and monetary policy - have to be taken into account too. What other explanation could there be for the increasing number of areas being brought into the scope of cooperation or for the way in which existing areas of cooperation have became increasingly supranational?

Individual characters also turn up repeatedly when looking at a chronological overview (such as Schuman and de Gaulle).

Another very important factor is the structural framework and the way in which competencies are distributed, as well as the changes concerning these; examples here might be the role played by the ECJ or the new decision-making procedures introduced by treaty revisions.

Just think about the skeptical attitude of Great Britain in particular on the question of integration, and it becomes clear as to the extent to which different beliefs held by member states have influenced the way in which cooperation is structured.

Anyone taking a look at the pile of literature on previous intergovernmental conferences and on the events that took place at Maastricht itself can be left in no doubt as to the importance of the "momentum of negotiations" for European integration.

It is also obvious that internal conditions in member states also have to be taken into account, such as the competencies of the individual German states and the composition of national governments.

It has also been suggested on many occasions that developments in one policy area affect other policy areas. This can be seen most clearly in connection with the internal market program which had huge consequences for EU monetary policy and justice and home affairs and even created new policy areas. The term used to describe this in integration research circles is spillover.

As is always the case in politics, the relationship between those in power and the people also forms an important aspect. Just think back to the ratification crisis following the Treaty of Maastricht and the actions taken at the 1996/97 Intergovernmental Conference as a result.